Public performance or not.!!

 Author : Shweta Khurana, 2nd Year student of RGSOIPL, IIT Law School.

Is the evolution and interpretation of laws lagging behind the technological advancements? The recent Supreme Court judgment in the case of American Broadcasting Companies Inc. v. Aereo Inc. 573 US 2014 implies so. The ruling observes that the retransmission of programs to the paid subscribers without the copyright owner’s authorisation or license is violative of the copyright law. The case raises the question of liability of the companies that offer the subscribers the ability to watch and record local broadcast television over the internet on payment at monthly basis. The US Supreme Court rejecting the respondent’s contentions as to their retransmission activity not coming within the meaning of “public performance” pointed out that such service was a tool or way to avoid being held liable for copyright infringement.

Analysing the judgement, if we look into the technology to get a clearer view as to the service in dispute being within the meaning of “public performance” the said service allows all the paid subscribers to watch programs airing on network television or record programs that will air in the future over the Internet.  The service provides three-in-one function as that of a regular television antenna, a recording device, and an application that makes these services work on devices other than televisions and computers. This is enabled by use of thousands of antennas that are distinct for each subscriber and function to capture the local broadcast signals i.e. thus the service bears similarity to modern day cable systems. Pointing to the definition of the public performance under the US Copyright Act, 1976^[1], 17 U.S. Code § 101 states that:

To perform or display a work “publicly” means—

(1) to perform or display it at a place open to the public or at any place where a substantial number of persons outside of a normal circle of a family and its social acquaintances is gathered; or

(2) to transmit or otherwise communicate a performance or display of the work to a place specified by clause (1) or to the public, by means of any device or process, whether the members of the public capable of receiving the performance or display receive it in the same place or in separate places and at the same time or at different times.

Interpreting the words of the definition and applying it to the dispute under question, it is noted that Aereo sent each of its subscribers an individualized/ private transmission of a performance from a unique copy of each copyrighted program captured and transmitted through different antennas. Also the servers are subscriber specific and does not involve transmission of performances “to the public,” but rather a number of "private" performances to paying subscribers.

Referring to two similar cases of Fortnightly Corp. v. United Artist Television Inc.^[2] and Teleprompter Corp. v. Columbia Broadcasting System Inc.^[3] where the community antenna television (CATV) systems were considered to be outside the purview of ‘public performers’ and these systems were said to be like a viewer rather than a broadcaster as these systems only perform the function of carrying the programs which have already been released to the public by private channels to individual viewers.

Drawing a comparison with the Indian Copyright Act, 1957 as amended in 2012 that gives an expanded definition of “communication to public” under Section 2 (ff)^[4]  so as to include both works and performances (instead of just works as was the case prior to the coming into effect of the 2012 amendments i.e. 'earlier'). Also, the definition now explicitly states that it does not matter whether the communication is ‘simultaneous or at places and times chosen individually’. As such, it appears to include multicasting, narrowcasting and unicasting. The explanation to the aforementioned section helps in understanding the intricacies of the copyrighted works transmitted through satellite or cable transmission so as to be considered within the definition of ‘public performance’. This makes it clear that such a dispute under Indian Jurisdiction would have suffered the same fate, preserving and protecting the broadcaster’s rights ruling out copyright violation on part of the service provider.  

Looking a bit deeper into the issue, one can see the economic and technological implications of this judgment on the new and upcoming technologies like Apple’s iCloud and Dropbox and other cloud computing tools that provide easy online access to stored data, music, pictures and other information via an online platform. It also raises concern as to the affordability issue as the service enabled the viewers or subscribers to watch and record local programs from various electronic devices on a very cheap subscription monthly payment.

So, instead of leaving the judiciary to interpret the law on their own, there is a need to find out such loopholes within the legislation and improvise or evolve the law to keep pace with the leaping technological breakthroughs as a 1976 legislation is not an appropriate legal proposition to be applied in the era of Internet, digital video recorders and smart phones.

Disclaimer: This blog or any post thereof is not to be considered to be in any way associated with the official stand of IIT kharagpur or RGSOIPL on the issues being discussed in the said post. The opinions on the blog are the authors own and should not be considered as legal advice.

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[1]http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17

[2] 392 U.S. 390 (1968)

[3] 415 U.S. 394 (1974)

[4] "communication to the public" means making any work available for being seen or heard or

otherwise enjoyed by the public directly or by any means of display or diffusion other than by issuing

copies of such work regardless of whether any member of the public actually sees, hears or otherwise enjoys the work so made available.

Explanation.- For the purposes of this clause, communication through satellite or cable or any other

means of simultaneous communication to more than one household or place of residence including

residential rooms of any hotel or hostel shall be deemed to be communication to the public;

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Extending the ‘passing off’ remedy of Trademark to domain names

Domain Name

In the general parlance we know that a Trademark is used to identify the products or services from a particular source (the Company from where the goods/services originate) , for example at the very moment the device through which this article is being accessed, be it a laptop, tablet, phone etc. has a Trademark say Dell, Sony, Apple, Nokia, Nexus etc. Due to the wide reach of internet to the users, almost all the companies have a website where the products and its specifications are displayed. Every company obtains a domain name and usually companies desire to obtain such domain names similar to the Trade mark of the company for the ease of users to relate. For example,consider 'Cipla' which is the Trade mark of one of the largest generic drug manufacturer in India, has the domain name of the Company as "www.cipla.com". 

The important question that would arise is ‘How does a domain name satisfy the characteristics of a trademark, thereby invoke a remedy for passing off?’ This can be understood by looking into the decisions of High Court and Supreme Court.The vacuum formed due to lack of legislation in this area has been filled by the Indian judiciary (The domain name disputes can be resolved through Uniform Domain-Name Dispute-Resolution Policy (UDRP) where there are Approved Dispute Resolution Service Providers like WIPO – it is not the area of our focus).

Let’s decipher the concept of passing off and later extend it to domain names.

Trade mark (as defined in Section 2(1)(zb) of The Indian Trademark Act, 1999): means a mark capable of being represented graphically and which is capable of distinguishing the goods or services of one person from those of others and may include shape of goods, their packaging and combination of colors.

Passing off: A company would establish consumer base, goodwill and reputation through its goods and services; Passing off is the act of gaining advantage (by misrepresentation) of the established goodwill of the former.The prior user of the mark has an added advantage. As stated by P.Narayanan, an established author in intellectual property law,few examples of passing off are[i]:

• False representation;
• Adoption of a trade mark either in whole or in part;
• Colorable reproduction of trade mark;
• Copying the label, scheme or get up of the mark.

Also, the passing off remedy can be invoked by non-registered users also unlike a remedy for infringement which is only provided for registered users, so this is the only form of remedy in case of domain name. 

A Trademark should be capable of distinguishing the goods or services of one from another whereas passing off is an act of gaining advantage by misreporting the goods or services of another. Passing off is against the primary purpose of the Indian Trade mark Act, 1999 (herein after referred as “the Act”) which can be inferred from the preamble which says “An Act to amend and consolidate the law relating to trade marks, to provide for registration and better protection of trade marks for goods and services and for the prevention of the use of fraudulent marks.”The common law right against passing off can be enforced for protecting the goodwill of a trader. This right has been included in the Act and has been extended to protect the right of unregistered users.

In the ErvenWarnink B.V. v. J. Townend & Sons (Hull) Ltd., [1980] R.P.C. 31, famously known as the Advocaat case, a five element test was laid down by the House of Lords to establish a valid cause of action for passing off (which has been cited by the Delhi Court in series of cases). The apex court in the case of Laxmikant V. Patel v. Chetanbhat Shah &Anr., [2002(24) PTC 1 (SC)] laid the classical trinity test as:

1. Plaintiff must establish goodwill associated with the goods or services

2. Misrepresentation by the defendant

3. Plaintiff must show that he suffered a loss.

The first case on passing off in domain names came up before the Delhi High Court in the case of Yahoo! Inc. v. Akash Arora nand Anr.,[1999 PTC (19)210 (Delhi)], in which the plaintiff owned the domain name “www.yahoo.com”. The defendant was using the domain name “www.yahooindia.com” in relation to internet related services which is the similar field in which the plaintiff is operating. So, the plaintiff alleged that by using a quite similar domain name and format to their domain name there is an act of deceit and “Passing off”. Thus by applying the principles of “passing off” the court passed an injunction.

There were similar disputes dealt by the courts in similar circumstances but the most important case is Satyam Infoway Ltd. v. Sifynet Soloutions Pvt. Ltd.,[2004 (28) PTC 566 (SC)]. The appellant in this case, incorporated in 1995, registered domain names like “www.sifynet”, “www.sifymall.com”, “www.sifyrealestate.com” etc. in 1999. The word ‘SIFY’ is a coined word adapted from ‘Satyam InFowaY’. The defendant has obtained the registration for the domain names “www.siffynet.com” and “www.siffynet.net” in 2001 and 2002 respectively. The respondent has contended that a Domain Name could not be confused with "property names" such as Trade mark. In this case the principal questions raised were:

1. “whether internet domain names are subject to the legal norms applicable to other intellectual properties such as Trade marks?”

and

2. “whether a domain name can be said to be a word or name which is capable of distinguishing the subject of trade or service made available to potential users of the internet?”

The Apex court has held with regard to the questions raised stating that:

• The internet has become a mode for commercial activity rather than a mere means of communication;
• Domain name identifies the specific internet site, it may pertain to provision of ‘services’ within the meaning of Section 2(z) (the ‘domain name’ identifies a‘service’ which is the website, so it qualifies to be a Trade mark);
• Trade marks containing same name can co-exist but the distinctive nature of the domain name providing global exclusivity is much sought after. The fact that consumers are likely to guess a domain name has enhanced its value.

In relation to first question of passing off, the court has applied the classical trinity test:

• The evidence (newspaper publication and user base) provided by the appellant shows that it has good will;
• It is evident from the facts that appellant is the first user;
• There is likely hood of confusion (‘sify’ & ‘siffy’), with possible injury to the public and consequential loss to the appellant.

Holding that the respondent has dishonestly adapted the domain name to free-ride on appellants, the Court upheld the injunction.

The recent case of Crayons Advertising Ltd v. Crayon Advertising, of Jan 17, 2014, is also a similar domain name dispute. The disputed domain names are “www.crayonad.com” and “www.crayonadv.com” of plaintiff and defendant respectively. In this case also the Delhi High Court has iterated the same principal and this is the case which has ignited the thought in these lines.

It can be concluded that a domain name qualifies to be a Trade mark and is used to identify the source of the “services” (which is the website) provided by a person. In case of any act of deceit and passing off by a person, for using a domain similar to that another person, the latter, by proving the elements of classical trinity test and prior use, can get an injunction against the mala fide user. The Indian judiciary has played an active role by filling the gaps formed by the lack of legislation in this area by extending the passing off remedy of Trade marks to domain names.

Abbreviations:

PTC – Patent & Trademark Cases.

R.P.C – Reports of Patent Cases

SC – Supreme Court

[i]Sreenivasulu N.S, “Law Relating to Intellectual Property”.Partridge Publishing, 2013.Page 114. 

Author - Murthy Yeggina

Disclaimer: This blog or any post thereof is not to be considered to be in any way associated with the official stand of IIT kharagpur or RGSOIPL on the issues being discussed in the said post. The opinions on the blog are the authors own and should not be considered as legal advice.

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